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Study memory, attention, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making processes.
The flow of information through the memory system.
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Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes including attention, memory, perception, language, problem-solving, and decision-making. Emerging from the cognitive revolution of the 1950s-1960s, this field views the mind as an information-processing system and uses experimental methods to understand how we acquire, store, transform, and use knowledge.
Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant stimuli.
Types of Attention: - Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while filtering others (cocktail party effect) - Divided Attention: Simultaneously attending to multiple tasks - Sustained Attention: Maintaining focus over extended periods - Alternating Attention: Switching focus between tasks
Theories of Attention: - Broadbent's Filter Model: Early selection based on physical features - Treisman's Attenuation Model: Unattended information weakened but not eliminated - Late Selection Models: Semantic processing before selection - Feature Integration Theory: Attention binds features into objects
Attentional Phenomena: - Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice unexpected stimuli - Change Blindness: Failure to detect changes - Attentional Blink: Brief period of reduced attention after detecting a target
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin): - Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (iconic, echoic) - Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (7±2 items), brief duration (15-30 seconds) - Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity, potentially permanent storage
Working Memory (Baddeley): - Central Executive: Attentional control system - Phonological Loop: Verbal and acoustic information - Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual and spatial information - Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different sources
Long-Term Memory Types: - Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection - Episodic: Personal experiences and events - Semantic: General knowledge and facts - Implicit (Non-declarative): Unconscious influences - Procedural: Skills and habits - Priming: Facilitation from prior exposure - Classical conditioning
Encoding Processes: - Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart): Deeper semantic processing leads to better memory - Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge - Organization: Structuring information improves encoding - Imagery: Visual mental representations enhance memory - Self-Reference Effect: Relating information to oneself improves memory
Retrieval Processes: - Recall: Retrieving information without cues - Recognition: Identifying previously encountered information - Cued Recall: Retrieval with hints or prompts
Retrieval Principles: - Encoding Specificity: Retrieval cues effective when matching encoding context - Context-Dependent Memory: Physical environment effects - State-Dependent Memory: Internal state effects - Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Match between encoding and retrieval processes
Forgetting: - Decay Theory: Memories fade over time - Interference: Proactive (old interferes with new) and retroactive (new interferes with old) - Retrieval Failure: Information available but not accessible
Language Processing: - Speech Perception: Categorical perception, phoneme identification - Word Recognition: Mental lexicon access, context effects - Sentence Processing: Syntactic parsing, semantic interpretation - Discourse Comprehension: Building mental models of text/speech
Language Production: - Conceptualization: Message generation - Formulation: Grammatical and phonological encoding - Articulation: Motor execution - Speech errors reveal production processes
Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis): - Strong version: Language determines thought (largely rejected) - Weak version: Language influences thought (supported by research on color, space, time)
Bilingualism and Cognition: - Executive function advantages (controversial) - Cognitive flexibility - Metalinguistic awareness
Problem-Solving Strategies: - Algorithms: Systematic procedures guaranteeing solution - Heuristics: Mental shortcuts (faster but may lead to errors) - Means-ends analysis - Working backward - Analogical reasoning
Barriers to Problem-Solving: - Mental Set: Tendency to use familiar approaches - Functional Fixedness: Inability to use objects in novel ways - Confirmation Bias: Seeking confirming evidence
Deductive Reasoning: Drawing conclusions from premises - Syllogistic reasoning - Conditional reasoning (if-then) - Common errors: belief bias, affirming the consequent
Inductive Reasoning: Generalizing from specific instances - Category-based induction - Hypothesis testing - Scientific reasoning
Normative Models: - Expected Utility Theory: Maximize expected value × probability - Bayes' Theorem: Updating probabilities with new evidence
Descriptive Models: - Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky): - Reference point dependence - Loss aversion: Losses loom larger than gains - Diminishing sensitivity - Probability weighting
Heuristics and Biases: - Availability: Judging frequency by ease of recall - Representativeness: Judging probability by similarity to prototype - Anchoring: Insufficient adjustment from initial value - Affect Heuristic: Decisions influenced by emotions
Dual-Process Theory: - System 1: Fast, automatic, intuitive - System 2: Slow, effortful, deliberate
Bounded Rationality (Simon): Humans satisfice rather than optimize due to cognitive limitations.
The dual-process theory of cognition popularized by Daniel Kahneman.
| System 1 (Intuitive) | System 2 (Deliberate) | |
|---|---|---|
| Speed | Fast | Slow |
| Effort | Automatic/Low effort | Controlled/High effort |
| Awareness | Unconscious | Conscious |
| Reliability | Prone to biases | More logical/reliable |
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